THE SOURCE OF THREATS

[ Back ] [ Up ] [ Next ]

V.1 THE SOURCE OF THREATS

Economic development during the past 50 years has been based upon unstable development practices in agriculture, industry, forestry, fishing, and urbanisation, although there was less impact from transportation and tourism. Without doubt, agriculture has been the major sector of the country's economy with the strongest impacts on biological and landscape diversity. From the 1960's until the end of the 1980's there was extensive agricultural development, followed by the intensive use of agricultural land in the 1990's. Together this has had enormous impacts on biological and landscape diversity.

Drainage and reclamation of swamps (250,000 ha), deforestation for opening up new lands (290,000 ha), terracing and the creation of fruit tree plantations, and damage to subalpine and alpine pastures for the purpose of setting up cultivated ground or "improved" pastures have all had adverse consequences on the environment and biodiversity. These actions were perhaps justified on behalf of the country's economic development, but they also destroyed hundreds of thousands of hectares of forests, pastures, and wetlands with high ecological, social, and economic values. Human interference without consideration of the consequences on environment, brought the following results:

In the past, intensive agricultural processes utilized fertilisers and pesticides, mechanical cultivation practices, and irrigation. These practices have also had impacts on the ecological status of waters and agricultural land, as well as on that part of wild flora and fauna, which are found on agricultural land and in the wetland ecosystems.

Uncontrolled exploitation of inland lake waters for irrigation has contributed to severe ecological stress and crises in these ecosystems, most notably the lakes of Prespa and Dumre and on many glacier lakes such as Lura. Exploitation of river networks for irrigation has also had the same effects since it was often carried out without regard for scientific criteria or "the biological minimum" of the water that needs to flow on the river's bed for ensuring the continuation of life in the water. Another contributing factor was the deviation of the rivers' course for reclamation reasons as was done with the Bistrica River on the plain of Vurgu in Saranda. The result has been ecological stress on the wetland ecosystems of the down stream rivers respectively on the lake of Butrinti and on the wetland ecosystems of Lezha).

The opening of Albania after the 1990's to the free market economy damaged, and is continuing to damage, biological and landscape diversity. Farmers and the population in general, now also have less interest in protecting and improving native breeds of flora and fauna. If left unchecked, this could lead to a large loss of genetic resources with significant economic and social consequences.

After agriculture, industry is the second most damaging sector with respect to the environment, and its biological and landscape diversity in particular. These consequences have been greatest along the coastal areas of Albania where there are larger concentrations of industrial activities. Industrial development has been vital for economic development, but it was not carried out in Albania with regard for the biological potential of the country, or with any intention to avoid or minimize the impact upon the environment.

The discharges of gases, liquids, and solids generated by old technologies which did not take into consideration the impacts on the environment have had enormous consequences, some of which continue even though the major part of industry has not been functioning since the beginning of the 1990's. Most notable are the metallurgical plant of Elbasan and its impacts on the Shkumbini River, and especially on the downstream coastal ecosystems, and the PVC Plant in Vlora and its impacts on the coast and the Bay of Vlora. Other examples include the paper factory in Lezha and its impacts on the wetlands of Kune-Vaini, the hydrocarbons and other chemicals from the Fieri fertiliser factory have downstream impacts on the Semani river, and the copper mines in Rubik, Burrel, Kukes, and Lac and their impacts on the landscape and nature surrounding them.

The major impacts of these activities have been on the marine ecosystems, especially in the coastal areas. There are cases of marine degradation as a result of settling of solid materials, minerals, and heavy metals in those zones. Although the major part of country's industry is out of functioning, the remaining ones continue to use old technologies, which cause harm to the environment.

Excessive forest exploitation due to the lack of alternative fuel resources for heating and cooking has adversely affected forest biodiversity.

Since 1953, the forest areas have decreased by around 300,000 ha or 22% – equivalent to 30% of existing forests. There have also been notable effects on forest productivity since many existing forests are heavily degraded and thin, and can not fulfil the ecological functions of the forest. This phenomenon is easily noticed by comparing the area and volume of the forest resources of Albania. Actually, more than 26% of country's forest area is occupied by forests with crown density less than 0.4.

The building of forest roads and the techniques used for extracting and transporting timber have had grave effects on the forest biodiversity of Albania, which have been compounded by the lack of funds for new technologies, and the geological and relief features of the areas covered by high trees.

The lack of national objectives for the protection and sustainable management of forests and forest and pastures biodiversity has adversely impacted biodiversity, large mammal populations in particular. These populations have decreased and been isolated from each other, leading to a higher danger of extinction because of the genetic degeneration which characterizes small and isolated populations. The lack of investments for silvicultural works, new forestation or reforestation, the maintenance of forest roads, fire protection, and other measures has contributed to the loss and degradation of forest habitats for many plant and animal species.

During the planning process and the implementation phase of forest and pasture management, there was a lack of concern for wildlife protection. Hence, there has been overexploitation of biological resources leading to degradation and impoverishment of habitats, as well as the risk of extinction for a large number of plant and animal species. Uncontrolled harvesting of medicinal plants, aromatic plants, and plants with industrial value have severely affected many of them.

Forests close to the rural dwelling areas are particularly degraded. These forests include oak and other tree plantations, which are characterised by high biological diversity in comparison to the other types of forests. Because of the existing difficult economic conditions and the traditional nature of Albanian society, the rural population is surviving by overexploiting the forest, severe tree cutting for cooking and heating and overgrazing, particularly by goats. The harvesting of shrubs and coastal forests has created problems, especially for the birds, which use these habitats for nesting.

During the recent past, and particularly the last 2-3 years, illegal tree cutting has been rampant in many parts of Albania, especially in the poorer northern and north-eastern districts of the country. (This situation has aggravated recently after the Kosovo crisis got over and the demand for timber inside Kosovo is increasing). Uncontrolled cutting occurs even inside the Protected Areas. Most of this cutting was done to provide timber for industry and construction. Fir and pine forests have been most damaged by this activity because of their high quality and high selling price on the uncontrolled market.

In the past, there have not been considerable effects from fishing on marine and wetland biodiversity. However, new and uncontrolled fishing practices used during the last few years are adversely affecting biodiversity. During the last five years, there has been fishing along the whole marine stretch with a depth of 2-30 meters, which has led to the depletion of the breeding grounds of Sparidae, Soleidae, Mullidae, and other families. The breeding grounds of Posidonia oceanica have also severely deteriorated because of changes in the structure of the fishing fleet. More than 50% of fishing boats have small power motors and hence are able to apply deep fishing techniques in shallow areas since they are unable to fish in zones more than 50 meters deep.

Uncontrolled fishing also affect internal waters, even in the critical periods of fish growth. These waters have been affected as well by the usage of explosive and poisonous materials. The major lakes of Ohrid, Shkodra, and Prespa have all been affected, and these lakes have an international importance because of the high number of endemic species present in their aquatic fauna, and because some of these species are globally endangered.

Foreign vessels fishing offshore Albania also cause damages, especially to fish and crustaceans, which are in demand in western markets. Along the Ionian coast there has been severe damage to benthic forms. Foreign divers have extracted the mollusc Lithofaga in a way, which damages entire coastal rocks. Hence these rocks have been damaged in a very short period of time after being relatively undisturbed for thousands of years. Strong measures need to be undertaken to ensure that such practices do not cause desertification of marine life along the rocky areas of the coast.

Due to the lack of funds for maintenance, sea-lagoon communication channels have deteriorated with a notable reduction of water exchange between the wetlands and the sea. This phenomenon is accompanied by the transformation of the limnologic regime which itself affects the icthyofauna. Most problematic is the situation of the Narta lagoon, where almost half of the area remains dry for the major part of the year.

Uncontrolled hunting is a major form of disturbance on biodiversity, especially during the winter when migratory winter birds are at risk. Birds are abandoning certain areas such as Kune-Vaini, Patok, Pishe Poro, and the Semani delta. There is a reduction in the population of some species due to illegal hunting methods, including poison which is sometimes used for the killing or capture of wildlife (mammals). The carnivore mammals and birds of prey are the most affected.

Disturbances to biodiversity caused by hunting have their greatest consequences during critical life cycle periods such as reproduction. Every disturbance or illegal form of hunting practised during this period brings the abandonment of lairs or nests, the abandonment of the young, and even the interruption of reproduction. This can also influence the reproduction "memory" of the animals leading to a permanent abandonment of the reproduction place. The animals, which are most sensitive to these disturbances, are the ones, which reproduce in colonies. A disturbance in the colony would bring the interruption of reproduction for all the individuals of that colony. For example, the sea eagle, Haliaetus albicilla, had previously been a permanent species with many nesting places in coastal areas such as Velipoja, Lezhe, and Karavasta. Presently, however, it is found only as a winter species in the area of Karavasta. The disappearance from the other Albanian wetlands came as result of the disturbances and the deterioration of parts of its nutrition habitats. A similar fate has met the Phalacrocorax pygmeus.

High rates of population growth during the past 50 years were accompanied by a progressive increase of anthropogenic impacts on nature and biodiversity. Many new towns and villages were constructed, and existing ones were enlarged with the enhancement of infrastructure and economic activities. In 1997, the population of Albania reached 3.7 million, or triple its level of 50 years ago. The fragmentation, reduction, and loss of natural habitats have been a direct result of demographic developments and the urbanisation process.

At the beginning of the 1990's the relatively free movement of people from the rural areas toward the urban ones began. This movement was uncontrolled and unguided, and has led to particular stress on the coastal and wetland ecosystems of the country which are more ecologically fragile. At the beginning of 1997, the population in the coastal areas was 2.4 times higher than in 1960. During the period from 1960-1990, the population of this area has increased by an average of 28,429 habitants per year, and for the period from 1990-1997 by an average of 54,661 habitants per year or twice as fast.

According to the data of the State Secretariat of Local Government, 54% of Albania's population lived in the coastal districts (including Tirana district) in 1997, while at the same time this land covers 35.7% of the country's area (10,279 km). Population density has increased from 82.4 inhabitants per km2 in 1960, to 179.3 inhabitants per km2 in 1997. The maximum density is in the central part of this area (Tirana, Durresi, and Kavaja districts) with 388.4 inhabitants per km2.

GRAPH 6

The environmental impacts of the increasing number of newcomers have been obvious. The coastal areas, particularly those close to the major urban centres (Tirana, Durresi, Lezha, and Vlora) are facing today a number of emerging problems with severe impacts on biological and landscape diversity. In summary, they are:

The transport sector has also expanded and led to damages to biological and landscape diversity. Due to lack of funds, inappropriate planning and poor estimation of the impacts on the environment, irreversible damages to the natural landscape have sometimes occurred. The construction of the north-south and east-west highways, and the increase of traffic are contributing to: (i) increase of natural habitats fragmentation; (ii) interruption of migration and large movement of animal species leading to the genetic degeneration of animal populations; and (iii) air and water pollution from gases emitted from vehicles which are highly polluting and would not be allowed to circulate in many countries. These effects will be more pronounced in the future. Thus, measures to avoid or minimize the consequences/impacts on the environment, as well as biological and landscape diversity, will need to be taken.

Because of the low levels of tourism during the time of communism, there were no impacts on biodiversity. However, after the 1990's, there is an increasing risk to biodiversity from the adverse impacts of tourism. The number of tourists who came to Albania in the 1990's was greater than that of the period from 1960-1990. Moreover, the number of tourists in 1996 was 75,000 or twice as much as in 1992. The majority of them passed the vacations in the coastal areas. Some of the tourists were also hunters who hunted without the required licenses and contributed to the further deterioration of coastal fauna (e.g., Kune-Vaini, Divjake, and Patok).