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UNEP/GRID-Arendal 1995
Moscow Seminars Proceedings UNEP/EAP.MR/95-5 GA Ref. No.: GA/205024-95/6 Design and lay-out: Litangen & Kuvaas Front cover map: Philippe Rekacewicz at Le Monde Diplomatique in Paris |
UNEP
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OECD
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GRID-Arendal
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* "Applications for permission to reproduce and translate all or part of this publication should be made to UNEP".
- to achieve the highest sustainable economic growth and employment
and a
rising standard of living in Member countries, while maintaining
financial
stability, and thus to contribute to the development of the world
economy;
- to contribute to sound economic expansion in Member as well
as non-member
countries in the process of economic development; and
- to contribute to the expansion of world trade on a multilateral,
non-discriminatory basis in accordance with international obligations.
The original Member countries of the OECD are Austria, Belgium,
Canada,
Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg,
the
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey,
the
United Kingdom and the United States.
The following countries became
Members subsequently through accession at the dates indicated
hereafter:
Japan (28th April 1964), Finland (28th January 1969), Australia
(7th June
1971), New Zealand (29th May 1973) and Mexico (18th May 1994).
The
Commission of the European Communities takes part in the work
of the OECD
(Article 13 of the OECD Convention).
Environment and Natural Resource Information Networks in Countries with Economies in Transition in Central and Eastern Europe
Information for sustainable development planning and management is of major concern for the global community. As a follow up to the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro, UNEP is helping to develop environment and natural resource information networks (ENRIN) worldwide. These networks consist of key institutions active in environmental information management at national and regional levels whose main aim is to generate environmental information needed by various users ranging from decision-makers to the general public.
Presentations
Presentations
- the need to establish and integrate existing monitoring/research
sites
and to select representative
parameters for monitoring;
- the importance of establishing linkages with national, regional
and local
information networks
to identify opportunities for co-operation and collaboration;
- the benefits of using a broad range of analytical and communication
tools
to enhance the
accessibility of information by different audiences; and
- the role of strengthening local capacity in environmental information
management through
training and skills development programmes.
This volume is jointly published by the OECD/CCET and UNEP (Environment
Assessment Programme). The co-operation of the Russian Ministry
of
Environmental Protection and NaturalResources and the Centre for
International Projects (Moscow) in organising the seminar is gratefully
acknowledged.
The views expressed represent those of the authors and do not
necessarily
reflect the views of their organisations, OECD or UNEP.
This report is published on the responsibility of the Secretary-General
of
the OECD.
Harvey Croze,
Assistant Executive Director, UNEP
Svein Tveitdal,
Director, UNEP/GRID-Arendal
Salvatore Zecchini,
OECD Assistant Secretary-General,
Director of the CCET
For organizing the workshop, the Russian Ministry for Environmental
Protection and Natural Resources, the Centre for International
Projects and
the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
Bo Libert at OECD was the main driving force in the organization
of this event.
To all of the participants and observers at the seminar(s).
For co-ordinating the publication and maintaining communication
between the
authors, the editors, the lay-out persons and others, Dawn Freund
of
GRID-Arendal.
For making the publication fully UNEP compatible
and
providing us with practical input, Danielle Mitchell of UNEP/DEA
Nairobi.
For making the publication fully OECD compatible, Carla Bertuzzi
of OECD,
Paris.
The proceedings was edited by Solfrid Tj¯rhom of Fevik, Norway;
Per Harald
Stabell of Litangen & Kuvaas (Arendal, Norway) was responsible
for the
lay-out;
the front cover map was designed by Philippe Rekacewicz
of Le
Monde Diplomatique in Paris.
Constructive advice and practical support was provided by various
individuals within the UNEP system, namely ENRIN co-ordinator
Dan Claasen
of UNEP/DEA in Nairobi, Andrea Matte-Baker of UNEP/ROE in Geneva
and
Director Svein Tveitdal of GRID-Arendal.
Arendal, September 9, 1995
Otto G. Simonett
Programme Manager Eastern Europe
and Developing Countries
OECD Work in Economies in Transition
The Centre for Co-operation with the Economies in Transition (CCET)
formulates, co-ordinates and monitors the OECD policy-oriented
assistance
strategy in favour of the Central and Eastern European countries
(CEECs)
and the New Independent States (NIS) of the former Soviet Union.
It has
been entrusted with this task since its creation in 1990, when
OECD
countries recognised that the Organisation's experience in analysing
macroeconomics and sectoral policies could be usefully extended
and adapted
to meet the needs of transition economies.
The CCET programme is wide-ranging and implemented by the individual
Directorates of the OECD. It provides policy analysis at the macro
and
sectoral levels, including activities to support the introduction
of sound
environmental practices and policies. Other areas covered by the
programme
include institution building, enterprise restructuring (together
with
related labour marked and social policy issues), and the development
of
meaningful statistics for market-oriented policy making.
To respond to the changing and increasingly diverse needs of the
transition
economies, the CCET programme is constantly evolving. Following
the signing
of the Declaration of Co-operation between the Russian Federation
and the
OECD on 8 June 1994, a Special Country Programme for the Russian
Federation
was developed. It is in the framework of this programme that the
seminars
on information systems were organised by the OECD Environment
Directorate.
OECD Environment Directorate
The OECD approach to environmental issues is grounded in the philosophy
that a firm alliance must be forged between economic growth and
environmental management. In today's world, both the quality and
quantity
of growth have become important considerations. The Environment
Directorate
of the OECD has a staff of about 70, most of whom are working
on issues
related to the interaction of the environment with economy, industry
and
energy.
In this work, environmental information plays an important role.
Monitoring
the state of the environment and developing environmental indicators
within
a comparable international framework supports national and international
environmental decision-making. In the OECD work programme on the
state of
the environment, three main areas should be mentioned:
1. Collection, treatment and harmonisation of environmental data
is
promoted by the collection of data in member and partner countries
through the OECD questionnaire on the state of the environment;
2. Work to develop environmental indicators that would help to
measure and
compare environmental performance and to integrate environmental
concerns
into sectorial policies; and
3. Systematic, independent and periodic environmental performance
country
reviews to help Member countries to improve their performances
in
environmental management.
The OECD Environment Directorate also plays a central role in
the
Environment- for- Europe- process, as it serves as the Secretariat
for the
Task Force for the Implementation of the Environmental Action
Plan for
Central and Eastern Europe.
Reviews of Environmental Information Systems in Economies in Transition
Over the last few years, the OECD has performed reviews of the
environmental information systems in non-member countries such
as Poland,
Hungary, the Czech and Slovak Republics, and in 1993 in the Republic
of
Belarus. The primary objective of these reviews has been to support
the
development and implementation of environmental policies nationally
and in
a region-wide international context.
The reviews have been organised around five major themes:
1. Relevance of environmental information
for decision-making;
2. Technical design of environmental
information systems;
3. Institutional and financial arrangements;
4. Adequacy of environmental information for
international needs; and
5. Better diffusion of environmental data.
The reviews are published and have served to support the development
of
environmental information systems in the respective countries.
The Review of the Environmental Systems of the Russian Federation
About a year ago, the OECD agreed with the Ministry for Environmental
Protection and Natural Resources of the Russian Federation to
proceed with
a review of the environmental information system in Russia. A
first mission
visited Moscow in April last year.
One of the preliminary conclusions of this first
mission was that:
"Work should continue on developing integrated
environmental information systems at the oblast
(regional) level to support policy and decision-making. Pilot
projects
provide a useful way to test systems and to facilitate improved
co-operation among regional offices of federal ministries and
local
authorities."
The mission further commended the general
direction of the development of USEMS and recommended among other
things that:
"The Unified State Environmental Monitoring System (USEMS)
should be
strengthened by:
- limiting the system to a general structure and
a small core set of data;
- linking regional environmental information
programmes to the USEMS;
- the development of environmental indicators through aggregation
of
relevant data;
- establishment of budgets for each contributing
organisation and the creation of a joint national-
subnational programme to monitor expenditures."
During the first mission the OECD experts were impressed by the
expertise
of specialists in the field and also by some of the initiatives
and pilot
projects that were presented to them. The second part of the review
involves inviting Russian specialists to present their proposals
with
regard to these two more specific subjects: Integrated Environmental
Information Systems in Support of Decision Making at the Oblast
Level,
which is the subject of this seminar, and the Unified State Environmental
Monitoring System of the Russian Federation, which will be discussed
26
January in a workshop in Moscow.
The two meetings of this week will serve the purpose of giving
our
consultants the input needed to draft chapters for the OECD review
on these
two specific issues. The entire review will be published in the
summer
after it has been discussed in a workshop in Paris.
The Aim of this Seminar
The focus of this seminar is a very important aspect of environmental
information systems in the Russian Federation-integrated information
systems for decision-making in the regions.
The regional administrations are now faced with a situation quite
different
than that during Soviet times. First, the introduction of a market
economy
and privatisation add new demands to the regional environmental
administration. Further, the regions now have a considerably higher
level
of independence. There is a whole range of issues earlier decided
in
Moscow, that are now being decided in the regional capitals.
During this seminar there will be an opportunity to examine a
number of
Russian initiatives, pilot projects in different sectors and regions
in the
light of the changing reality. Experience from other countries
will also be
presented and discussed. The aim of the seminar is to give relevant
input
to decision-makers and experts on how to design and implement
new
integrated environmental information systems in the regions of
the Russian
Federation.
The seminar will not give the solutions for each and everyone
of the
regional representatives participating. Hopefully, however, the
seminar
will be successful in raising the issues that are important to
consider
when designing the information systems for the different regions.
The
demand-side of environmental information systems will be discussed
thoroughly. The reason is that so much of the discussion on environmental
information in other fora is focused on technology and technicalities.
Before developing the sophisticated systems of the future, the
purpose and
goals of these systems should be defined very clearly. A second
important
consideration is the need for precision on their cost-effectiveness,
as, in
the end, it is likely that the regions themselves will finance
environmental informational systems.
The Environmental Information System in Support of Decision-Making (The Case of the Kurgan Oblast)
Y. Dmitriyev
International Academy of Information Technology
State Institute of Applied Ecology
The Russian Federation
An efficient system of decision-making, or management system based
on
information on the state of the environment, sources of environmental
impacts, and effects of such impacts, needs to be put in place
in order to
implement the government policy of environmental protection and
environmental safety at the regional level. To obtain this kind
of
information, territorial systems of environmental monitoring are
being set
up, their forms and composition essentially depending on their
role and
place in the overall system of environmental protection and safety
management. In this case, several important questions have to
be answered:
first, what is the structure of the object of management; second,
what are
the underlying principles of controlling its condition, given
the effects
of anthropogenic impacts; third, what are the requirements for
a system
providing information support for management procedures.
While determining the structure of the object of management, one
should
remember, first and foremost, that the environment in which human
beings
live, and in which a multitude of phenomena and processes are
going on, is
an extremely complex dynamic system, of which many processes and
phenomena
are still known but little, if known at all. This fact creates
major
difficulties in taking decisions concerning environment management,
since
decisions here will be taken in a situation where information
on thestate
of the object of management is uncertain. Dealing with a dynamic
complex
system, we need a scheme for correlating the variables characteristic
of
the system, which is its model. Apparently, models can take various
forms
and reflect the real system to various degrees of detail. The
degree of
detail of a model that makes it useful is determined, first of
all, by the
intended use of the model. It should be observed that any model,
no matter
how complex and detailed it may be, will only partially reflect
such a
complex object as the human environment. We can only compare certain
features of the real system and models thereof, but we will never
be able
to guarantee their exact and complete correspondence. A pragmatic
concept
of a model's authenticity should assume that the acceptability
of a model
should be judged by its utility, rather than by its verity. Speaking
about
environmental management, we mean, first of all, management of
anthropogenic impacts on the environment and its components in
order to
achieve certain qualities or properties thereof. Hence, a model
should
include elements enabling it to describe the transfer of anthropogenic
impacts from their origin to human beings or a natural object
through the
whole of the complex dynamic system, and to determine possible
means of
controlling this transfer in all the components of the object
of
management. The structure of the human environment model should
also be
based on the law of systemic separatism, according to which the
system
components of heterogeneous quality are always independent structurally.
There is a functional relation between the system components,
or they can
even penetrate into each other, but this does not prevent the
entities
forming part of the system from being structurally independent,
though
their purpose is common. Thus, the implementation of a model of
human
environment must correspond to the purpose of the model and to
the quality
of its components, so that the purpose could be successfully achieved.
Based on the requirements above, a pragmatic model of the human
environment
has been proposed to control its state under anthropogenic effects.
The
model proposed consists of a series of the following components:
- sources of anthropogenic impacts;
- abiotic environment including atmospheric air,
surface waters and geological environment;
- geosystems and ecosystems;
- social environment.
This model makes it possible to develop a
multi-circuit plan of environmental management with feedback (see
Fig. 1)
in order to ensure environmental protection and safety, wherein
management
measures are designed on the basis of decisions taken by the respective
government officials. The corner-stone of this management plan
is the fact
that only one structural element of the model proposed is amenable
to
institutional management, i.e. management based on decisions taken
by a
government official, and that element is the sources of anthropogenic
impacts. It is the fulfillment of these management functions that
the first
management circuit is related to. It includes:
- a system of monitoring the state of sources of
anthropogenic impacts;
- a system of controlling the condition of sources
of anthropogenic impacts;
- a system of preparing and taking institutional
decisions.
Here, control of the condition of sources is performed by comparing
their
actual current condition to a pre-set standard, the latter, in
turn,
serving as a management criterion which is set externally for
the
management circuit in question. A deviation of the current condition
from
the pre-set standard generates a signal to activate the system
of preparing
and taking institutional decisions. This system performs the following
functions:
- determines the causes of the deviation;
- assesses the effects of the deviation from the
standard requirements;
- determines institutional, technological, economic and other
measures to
bring the sources back to their standard condition;
- develops scenarios of achieving the objectives,
including evaluation of efficiency of various
management decisions and costs of their
implementation.
The system of decision-making performs the
following functions:
- develops an action plan to achieve the standard
condition of sources of impacts;
- implements management measures to influence
the sources;
- monitors the implementation of management
measures.
The second circuit of management provides for the adjustment of
the state
of abiotic environments affected by anthropogenic impacts. This
circuit
includes:
- a system of monitoring abiotic environments;
- a system of controlling the condition of abiotic
environments;
- a system of preparation of decision-making.
This management circuit does not directly include a system of
decision-making, as abiotic environments do not lend themselves
immediately
to institutional management. In this circuit, the condition of
abiotic
environments is controlled in the same way as in the first circuit,
by
comparing their current condition to a pre-set standard. Here,
too, the
pre-set standard serves as a management criterion set externally.
The
connection with the first management circuit, which implements
the
procedures of direct institutional decision-making, is provided
by the
system of preparing decisions in the second management circuit.
This system
selects management criteria for the first circuit, i.e. it sets
standard
requirements for sources of anthropogenic impacts, at which management
criteria of the second circuit are met, the latter being standard
requirements for the condition of abiotic environments. In this
instance,
the cycle of management measures will be completed as soon as
the current
condition of sources of anthropogenic impacts and abiotic environments
meet
the pre-set standards.
The third and fourth management circuits have a similar structure.
They are
responsible for the adjustment of geo and ecosystems and the social
environment in proportion to its dependence on the quality of
the abiotic
environment and the state of nature. Thus, one may conclude from
the human
environment management plan described above, that the proposed
multi-circuit principle of management provides feedback between
the
condition of the components of the environment and decisions taken
to
control this condition, implementing a steady algorithm of achieving
the
objectives. It should be stressed that it is only sources of anthropogenic
impacts that are subjected to direct institutional management,
with
management criteria for these sources set on the basis of analysis
and
monitoring the current condition of all other components of the
human
environment, including the social sphere.
The system of environmental monitoring plays a key role in the
above
environment management plan. Here, environmental monitoring implies
regular
observations of natural environments, natural resources, vegetation
and
animal life carried out according to a pre-determined Program,
making it
possible to identify changes in their condition and processes
going on in
them as a result of anthropogenic impacts. Thus, the system of
environmental monitoring means an organized monitoring of the
human
environment which, firstly, ensures an on-going assessment of
environmental
conditions of the habitat of human beings and biological objects
(plants,
animals, microorganisms, etc.), and of the functional integrity
of
ecosystems, and, secondly, provides conditions for identifying
adjustment
measures where the desired parameters of ecological conditions
are not
achieved. Therefore, the ecological aspect of observing the human
environment shows itself in a systematic organization of such
observations.
The objective of this systematic organization is to provide environmental
protection and safety activities with timely and reliable information,
making it possible:
- to evaluate indicators of the condition and functional integrity
of
ecosystems and the human habitat;
- to identify causes of changes and to assess
implications of such changes, as well as to determine adjustment
measures
where the desired parameters of environmental conditions are
not
achieved;
- to create prerequisites for identifying measures aimed at
correcting
unfavorable situations before any damage has been done.
Based on the above, the principal objective of the environmental
monitoring
system is to obtain three main types of indicators:
- compliance indicators;
- diagnostic indicators;
- early-warning indicators.
The main functions of the environmental monitoring system include:
- identification of the object of observation;
- surveying the identified object of observation;
- developing the informationmodel of the object
under observation;
- planning measurements;
- taking measurements;
- measurement data management;
- assessing the condition of the object of observation and identifying
its information model;
- projection of changes in the condition of the object
of observation;
- presenting information in a user-friendly mode.
The territorial environmental monitoring system is formed by integrating
thematic systems and subsystems, information and measuring complexes
and
data-processing complexes, etc., that are interlinked with each
other by
common objectives, requirements for observation organization and
performance, generalization and integration of data obtained,
possible use
of the data for mathematical modeling and simulation, institutional
and
targeted application, etc. Thus, we are dealing with a complex
multi-purpose and multi-component information system whose performance
efficiency and further development largely depend on the correct
logical
and organizational structure.
Functionally, the environmental monitoring
system includes:
- emission monitoring systems;
- impact monitoring systems, or systems of monitoring the impacts
of
concrete sources on the human
environment;
- background monitoring systems.
By the objects of observation, the environmental monitoring includes:
- an emission monitoring system;
- an abiotic environment monitoring system;
- a biotic environment monitoring system;
- a geosystem monitoring system;
- a social environment monitoring system.
By the thematic application, the environmental monitoring system
consists
of software systems designed to resolve specific environmental
protection
and safety problems. The set of such software systems for a given
area or
oblast depends on the environmental situation there, on the causes
of
negative changes in the human environment and on priorities in
measures to
stabilize and further improve the environment. Thus, the block
of software
systems is specific for each territory or oblast in the Russian
Federation
determining the structure of the territorial environmental monitoring
system and, therefore, acting as a system-generating element in
the
territorial system. An important role in building an efficient
information
system in support of decision-making procedures belongs to a logical
structure of software systems of environmental monitoring. Research
has
shown that four hierarchic logical levels should be identified:
strategic
level, target level, task level, functional level.
The strategic level determines the general form of the software
system
block and should answer the question of what to do and in what
areas. This
level is formed directly by thematic programs of monitoring. In
the case of
the Kurgan oblast, the following main programs were developed:
- monitoring to implement the ecosystem approach
to the air quality protection;
- monitoring to implement the ecosystem approach
to water management in the oblast;
- monitoring to limit radiation exposure of the residents in
areas
contaminated with radioactive elements and in areas with increased
levels
of natural radiation;
- monitoring to restrict exposure of people in urban areas
and rural
settlements to atmospheric pollution;
- monitoring to ensure the ecosystem approach and environmental
safety
of handling hazardous domestic and industrial wastes;
- monitoring to ensure environmental safety in
emergencies of technogenic, natural/technogenic
or natural character.
The target level refers to each specific thematic program of monitoring,
indicating realistic and ideal directions of implementing its
strategy, and
answering the question: why take action? The specific relation
of the
environmental monitoring directly to the system of decision-making
is
determined at this logical level.
The task level specifies and differentiates the targets of each
thematic
program, answering the questions as to how to act, and how much
action to
take. At this level, objects of observation and methods of describing
them
are defined more precisely, i.e. information models of objects
of
observation are selected, including the list of parameters to
be
determined.
The functional level determines for each thematic program the
types of
action and list of activities to be carried out, answering, accordingly,
the question as to what kind of action and what work need to
be
undertaken. At this level, concrete methods for obtaining and
evaluating
the necessary indicators are determined, hardware and methods
are defined
for taking measurements, and relations are established between
the
measurements and mathematical models.
The organization of integrated observations within the framework
of a
territorial system of environmental monitoring is a complex multi-factor
task that should be dealt with taking into account the guidelines
for
assessing the impacts on the human environment, the guidelines
for the
ecosystem approach to various activities and nature management,
and the
identification of the condition of the object of observation,
i.e. the
human environment. The choice of an information model for the
object of
observation and the process of data acquisition for this model
play a major
role in terms of identifying the object of observation. While
making this
choice, one should bear in mind the spatial distribution characteristic
of
virtually all the values observed. This makes it possible to suggest
for
the information model the information portrait of the ecological
situation
as a multitude of spatially distributed data on the ecological
situation in
a graphic form together with the map of the area. The most important
feature of the information portrait of the ecological situation
is its
resolution, i.e. spatial detail of the information contained in
the
portrait. The resolution is deter mined by the scale of the map
used in the
portrait. As the ecological information "moves" across
the hierarchic
levels of the administrative management system
(enterprise>city>district>oblast), it is generalized
in accordance with the
scale of the map used at a given hierarchic level to analyze the
situation
and take decisions. At higher levels of decision-making, therefore,
some
information is lost for generalization, although the loss is justifiable,
as what is lost is the detail unnecessary for a given level of
management.
The above information technology is based on electronic mapping
and
geoinformation systems.
In choosing the information acquisition process to draw a portrait
of the
ecological situation, the assumption should be that, realistically,
one can
only achieve the best estimate of the condition of the human environment
and impacts to which it is exposed. An efficient technique for
obtaining
such best estimates is the use of measurement results and mathematical
modeling in a single process. This hybrid observation technique
is
implemented by solving primal and inverse problems, as well as
problems of
optimal spatial/temporal interpolation or objective analysis of
fields of
various values.
The primal problems are oriented towards knowing a priori the
condition of
sources of impact, i.e. emissions, namely:
- the power of the source and its changeability
with time;
- the location of the source (geographic co-ordinates);
- physico-chemical properties and parameters of the aggregate
state of
emissions.
Solving the tasks of monitoring by the primal problem method implies
a
possibility of direct observation of emission sources. This method
is used:
- to draw an information portrait of emission sources;
- to draw an information portrait of the current
spatial distribution of pollutants and other factors
of impact based on numeric simulation of their
transport and dispersal in abiotic environments
from known sources.
Inverse problems are oriented towards knowing a posterior pollution
characteristics of abiotic environments. The main purpose of these
problems
is:
- to identify unknown sources of emissions;
- to make more precise data on the condition of the emission
sources
known a priori.
Objective analysis focuses on spatially and temporally discrete
measurements of environment pollution (air, surface and ground
waters,
soil, etc.). Building the pollutant concentration fields to solve
this type
of tasks is based on mathematical methods of multi-dimensional
objective
analysis using interpolation techniques, correlative and empirical
relations. Planning observations and an optimal location of measurement
points in observation grids have an import ant role to play.
The process of hybrid observation is implemented with two independent
information and measurement paths. The first path realizes the
method of
pri mal problem solving using data of source monitoring. The mathematical
models used for the simulation of pollutant spreading must provide
an
adequate description of transport and dispersal processes and
be
susceptible to changing hydrometeorological conditions. The second
information and measurement path operates to implement the method
of
objective analysis based on the measurements of environment pollution
parameters at individual spatial points at cer tain moments in
time. The
operation of the two information and measurement paths results
in two
information portraits of one and the same ecological situations.
Since the
information used to obtain these portraits was different for each
one, it
could be assumed that they are independent with respect to possible
distortions. This enables an algorithm for data validation to
be built,
involving the comparison of two independent information portraits
using
pre-selected coincidence criteria. If the coincidence has been
achieved,
then the information portraits are validated within limits of
error
corresponding to the coincidence criteria adopted. Otherwise,
causes of
divergence are analyzed and additional information is acquired
by the two
independent information and measurement paths. In doing this,
one should
remember that distortions of the information portrait obtained
by the
method of primal problem solving may be due to the fact that:
- not all of the actual emission sources have been
taken into account in drawing the portrait;
- the mathematical models used did not provide an adequate description
of
the processes of emission transport and dispersal in natural
environments, or are poorly adapted to the actual hydrometeorological
conditions.
Distortions of the information portrait obtained by objective
analysis may
be due to interpolation errors caused by a low spatial and temporal
resolution of the measurement grid. At the same time, this portrait
contains data on environment pollution from all the actual sources
of
emissions, the said data being independent of the quality of the
mathematical models used to build the first information portrait.
This
makes it possible to build an algorithm for verifying several
hypotheses on
the causes of divergence of the information portraits of the
situation:
- not all of the actual sources have been taken into account
in drawing
the first information portrait in the simulation of emission
distribution;
- mathematical models of poor quality have been used in drawing
the first
information portrait in the
simulation;
- data from a measurement grid of low resolution,
both spatial and temporal, have been used in the objective
analysis to
build the second information portrait.
The first hypothesis is verified by solving inverse problems for
which
source information is presented by the differential information
portrait.
This differential information portrait should come as fields of
emissions
from unknown sources. The program of observation grids' operation
is
adjusted in accordance with the data provided by solving inverse
problems.
To this end, the observation hardware includes mobile observation
stations
that can be moved around quite promptly and concentrated in certain
parts
of the area under observation. This hardware is used to obtain
new data
both on the emission sources and on parameters of environment
pollution at
new points in space. New information portraits are built on these
data
using the method of primal problem solving and objective analysis.
The
procedure of validation of these portraits is further iterated
until their
coincidence is achieved.
The second and third hypotheses are verified by methods of mathematical
models' susceptibility to changes in the programs of the observation
hard
ware operation, mostly for mobile measurement complexes.
If the verification of all hypotheses does not yield a coincidence
of
information portraits, the coincidence criteria are changed from
"rigid" to
"softer" ones. With new criteria, the validity of the
information portrait
becomes lower.
The organization of a territorial environmental monitoring system
now adays
runs into serious problems with the legal base that should provide
for its
uninterrupted operation. This legal base includes:
- Regulations of the territorial environmental monitoring system
defining
the legal status of the information acquired, establishing special
authorities to
implement certain components of the system at the oblast level
with due
regard for the terms of reference of federal authorities (the
Committee
for Hydrometeorology, the Committee for Geology, the Committee
for
Water Management, the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Inspectorate,
the
Ministry for Emergencies, etc.) and their local branches;
- Procedures for data communication between various components
of the
system at the oblast level and the structure of information
to be
transmitted;
- Regulations of methodological support for the
environmental monitoring system at the oblast level;
- The list of recommended observation procedures to ensure
the
functioning of both target-oriented
and thematic systems.
The territorial environmental monitoring system is funded from:
- the federal budget to provide for monitoring
programs of national importance or programs implemented for
the federal
authorities;
- the local budget to provide for monitoring
programs of regional importance.
There seems to be a future for a special extrabudgetary fund of
environmental monitoring. At present, the principles of operation
of such a
fund are being tested in a pilot project in the Kurgan oblast.
The architecture of the territorial environmental monitoring system
in the Kurgan oblast
A considerable amount of information needed for the programs of
environmental monitoring is provided by measuring various values
and
parameters at a large number of points throughout the oblast,
as well as by
sampling natural environments and natural sites, followed by laboratory
analysis of samples. Most of these activities can be made automatic
by
setting up a special information and telecommunication system
to collect
measurement data obtained at a large number of points all over
the oblast,
to control the measurement process in a multi-point system, and
to control
sampling devices. The information and telecommunication system
(ITS)
includes:
- instrument stations of various purposes;
- information terminals;
- several specialized and one regional data-processing and analytical
center interconnected by data
communication links.
The core of the ITS is the regional data-processing and analytical
center
(see the diagram). Grouped in a radial telecommunication network
around the
regional data-processing and analytical center (RDAC) are specialized
data-processing and analytical centers (SDAC) belonging to the
Committee
for Hydrometeorology, the Committee for Water Management, the
Committee for
Geology, the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Inspectorate,
the State
Committee for Forestry, etc. at the oblast level, and the information
terminals of the local-area information and telecommunication
systems
(LITS). A LITS includes:
- instrument stations of various types and purposes;
- information terminals;
- a system of communication between the instrument stations
and
information terminals.
The local-area information and telecommunication systems are built
in a
radial circuit to provide for direct communication of information
terminals
with each instrument station.
An information terminal performs the following functions:
- collection and preliminary analysis of
measurement data;
- control of transducers in accordance with the
programs of environmental monitoring;
- control of automatic sampling devices in accordance with
the
programmes of environmental monitoring;
- communication between specialized and regional information
and
analytical centers and instruments throughout the oblast;
- identification of abnormal and hazardous situations in the
human
environment, and warning of such
situations.
Instrument stations are the key element of information and measurement
systems, as they obtain primary information required to fulfil
environmental monitoring programs. Such stations can operate in
the on-line
and off-line modes and are divided into:
- stationary instrument sites;
- mobile or portable instrument stations;
- moving instrument stations.
By the object of observation, the instrument stations are divided
into
specialized stations for hydrometeorological/hydrological observations,
air
observations, water observations, vegetation observations, observation
and
monitoring of radiation.
Instrument stations can be integrated into complexes to fulfill
several
functions, e.g. observation of air quality and vegetation.
Information on remote sensing of the earth obtained with equipment
installed on board earth satellites plays an important role. An
analysis of
the use of this kind of information in the system of environmental
decision-making and for the purpose of ensuring environmental
safety has
shown its low efficiency due to the fact that it takes a long
time before
remote-sensing information obtained on board an earth satellite
is
delivered to a decision-maker at the oblast level. To eliminate
this
disadvantage, an off-line satellite data receiving station has
been
included in the territorial environmental monitoring system of
the Kurgan
oblast. A dedicated data processing system has been developed
to handle
remote-sensing data, which makes it possible not only to carry
out data
processing, but also to transform it into a mapping format in
the form of
thematic layers of the geoinformation system.
To illustrate the actual operation of the territorial environmental
monitoring system of the Kurgan oblast, we would like to present
demonstration versions of the software that allow the following
problems to
be solved:
- distribution of various admixtures in the boundary
layer of the atmosphere, taking into account the actually observed
meteorological conditions;
- distribution of various admixtures in the geosystem
of the Kurgan oblast and in the formation of a
distributed source of surface water pollution in the case of
the Tobol
and Miass river basins;
- setting up an information system to monitor air
emission in the city of Kurgan.
On the whole, the first stage of establishing a territorial environmental
monitoring system in the Kurgan oblast has been completed, which
includes
setting up a legal base for the system to operate, installing
hardware and
soft ware for the RDAC using hybrid technology, a telecommunication
system
to exchange data and messages at the federal and inter-oblast
levels, as
well as a telecommunication system to exchange data within the
oblast.
Organization of a System of Impact Monitoring
Alina Fedorovskaya
Urals State Institute of Regional Ecological Problems
The Russian Federation
Objective information is required on the current and projected
condition
and quality of the environment, so that effective measures can
be taken,
aiming to protect the environment and use natural resources in
a rational
way.
The basis for this information is provided by environmental monitoring,
which should be understood as a permanently operating system of
observation
of changes in the condition of natural environments, natural resources,
and
ecosystems; observation of anthropogenic sources and their impacts;
and as
a system of assessment of the condition of the objects of observation
mentioned above, and projection of their changes.
A special place amongst subsystems included in this system belongs
to
monitoring related to the observation of industrial sites or individual
sources and their impacts, i.e. a system of impact monitoring
(SIM).
Such systems need to be established and developed, because environmental
protection measures often happen to be ineffective due to their
limited
local scope and the lack of relevant information about specific
sources.
Also, the modern concept of investment policy requires that industrial
enterprises be "environmentally attractive" to investors,
whereas SIM
should be regarded as a tool or method of environment management.
SIM is a system of observation and evaluation of the current and
projected
technogenic impacts of anthropogenic sources on the condition
of ecosystems
and human health. SIM operates and develops to ensure reliable
and early
detection of deviations from allowable levels of pollution in
the vicinity
of an industrial site, so that management decisions can be taken
thereafter
to contain these deviations and mitigate, fully or to the maximum
extent
possible, their effects on the humans, the environment and the
economy.
Given the objective above, the principal tasks of SIM are as follows:
- observation of anthropogenic sources and levels of pollution
of the
natural environment in the area of technogenic impacts of industrial
enterprises;
- detecting sources of pollution and areas of
technogenic impact;
- quantitative and qualitative determination of the
composition of the pollution in emissions
(discharges) and natural environments in the area around an
industrial site;
- assessment of the levels and scale of pollution of the objects
of
observation;
- monitoring changes in the levels of pollution of the objects
of observation;
- assessment of the environmental and toxicological hazards
resulting
from pollution;
- determining the order of toxic agents forming part
of the pollution in terms of the hazards they create;
- collecting, generalizing and passing on to interested authorities
and
agencies data on emissions
(discharges) and on the condition of the environment and projection
of
its changes in the area where a
particular enterprise is located.
To implement these tasks, SIM should include:
1. A measurement and observation network operating to collect
primary
information:
- on the sources of pollution;
- on the levels of pollution of the atmospheric air, soil, surface
water,
food products and drinking water;
- on the level of pollution and condition of ecosystems;
- on the state of health of human beings.
2. An information and analytical division operating to transmit,
collect,
store, generalize and present information. It should include:
- communication links;
- centers for collecting, processing, generalizing,
storing and presenting information.
Information and analytical centers should be furnished with application
software packages to create databases needed to solve various
environmental
problems, as well as with mathematical models to compute proliferation,
migration and transformation of pollutants.
3. A control division operating to take prompt
decisions in emergencies (such as adverse hydrometeorological
conditions,
accidents) and in long- term situations.
The proposed conceptual plan of monitoring provides for the upwards-going
information flow, i.e. from sources of the environmental and hygienic
conditions in the area of a technogenic impact, with the chain
of
subordination from top to bottom, i.e. the task of acquiring exhaustive
information on the environmental and hygienic condition in the
area of a
technogenic impact of an industrial site dictates the need to
organize
observation of sources, levels of pollution, etc. in an appropriate
manner.
The tasks demand elaboration of adequate methodological approaches
and
criteria for their realization.
The top-priority task in identifying the pollution resulting from
technogenic impacts of enterprises and assessing its scale is
to find out
and study the actual and potential sources of pollution.
To standardize accounting, questionnaires need to be elaborated,
with all
the necessary data included, starting with the characteristics
of the
source, the type of pollutants, their qualitative and quantitative
composition, details of migration and transformation in the environment.
After all the documents necessary for making an inventory have
been
collected, software is developed.
The next stage involves surveying the area of the technogenic
impact. The
size of the area to be surveyed is determined approximately, based
on the
estimates of the possible distance of spreading of polluting air
masses and
waste water. Also surveyed is the degree of pollution of the soil,
first
and foremost around waste storage facilities. Samples are collected
and
analyzed to assess the quantitative and qualitative composition
of the
pollution of soil, water and air. The results of the analysis
are used to
evaluate the scale of pollution caused by the technogenic impact
of
enterprises. Evaluation of the scale of the pollution identified
in the
area around the source includes determining the size of the area
with the
established level of pollution, the intensity of the pollution
and the
speed with which the polluted area expands.
The most difficult stage in setting up a monitoring system and
the
determinant factor in management decisions is the projection of
changes in
the state of the environment resulting from technogenic impacts.
The
projection of migration and transformation of pollutants in the
air, soil
and water is the most important part of the projection of quantitative
changes in the environment in local areas. It depends both on
the natural
properties of the environment and on the physico-chemical properties
of the
pollutants. The models must be easy to use, without the need for
large
amounts of input data, they must include the main factors determining
the
environmental quality and yield sufficiently reliable results.
The
difficulty of choosing them is not due to the complexity of calculations,
but rather to the lack of the required information. It is also
import ant
to include the assessment and projection of pollution in an emergency
in
the monitoring programs.
The ultimate objective of SIM is to assess the effects of emissions
of
harmful substances on humans and ecosystems. In this country,
maximum
allowable concentrations (MAC) and maximum allowable emissions
(MAE) serve
as environmental standards and criteria for assessing the effects
on human
health. The shortcomings of the MAC as a criterion are well-known.
The MACs
do not take into account the combined effects of several toxic
agents and
are only applied with respect to human beings (even when a maximum
allowable concentration is applied to soil or a fish pond, it
is oriented
towards the human food chain). An assessment of impacts based
on
determining maximum allowable loadings deserves much attention.
It is a
set of values of environmental factors that do not cause valid
changes in
the human health indicators from the norm. The maximum allowable
loadings
are unique for each existing pollution complex and for each area
of survey.
In fact, Russia still does not have a system of monitoring the
conditions
of ecosystems, and the principles upon which it should be organized
are
largely to be the subject of future studies. Initially it seems
expedient
to build it on the basis of monitoring the diversity of species
and the
movement of seasonal succession, necessarily combined with information
on
dose loadings on the ecosystems, so that statistics could be used
to obtain
dose-effect relations.
Certain components of the system have been developed for a concrete
industrial site, the LuckoilPermnefteorgsintez Joint Stock Company.
It is
not "convenient" to test methodology on this enterprise
as it is part of a
conglomeration of enterprises concentrated within a limited area.
It has
been selected mostly because this facility is causing more problems
than
others, with its emissions accounting for some 50 percent of the
total
emissions in town. Besides, experimental materials have been accumulated
after many years of observation of the environment in the area
of
technogenic impacts of the enterprise and assessment of effects
on human
health. The main steps included:
- a comprehensive survey of the sources and the area, including
settlements located far away from the enterprise but affected
by
emissions;
- an inventory of the sources of pollution;
- development of the information base of monitoring;
- adaptation and development of software for
simulation of migration and transformation
of pollution;
- assessment of effects of pollution emissions on human health.
Actual and potential sources of pollution have been identified
during the
survey. The area and linear dimensions of sources of pollution,
regime of
emissions (discharges), the time the source began to function,
the
condition of the sewer system, and the time and number of emergency
leakages have been determined. The qualitative and quantitative
composition
of emissions has been determined using calculations and experimental
measurements. A computerized environmental information system
called EIS
Enterprise has been designed at the institute to standardize,
systematize
and process the primary data collected.
All the key functions of environmental activities of the enterprise
have
been computerized, from collecting and accumulating initial data
to
producing reports, enterprise standards, on-line data and recommendations.
During the development of the system, specifications have been
elaborated,
which include requirements for the system's structure and functions,
types
of support (mathematical and linguistic support, dataware, software).
The
EIS Enterprise includes the following functional subsystems with
sets of
standard computerization functions for activity packages: Atmosphere,
Hydrosphere, Wastes and Land, Economics. The key functions of
the EIS
Enterprise are:
- maintenance of data on the inventory of sources of air and
water pollution;
- keeping records of wastes and their disposal sites;
- keeping records of monitoring environment pollution by the
enterprise
by primary accounting forms;
- producing documents of statistical reporting on
emissions, discharges and wastes based on primary accounting
data;
- producing standard documents (in- house draft
standards for maximum allowable emissions, the enterprise's
environmental passport);
- recording and checking the implementation of
environmental measures;
- recording and monitoring violations of environmental standards;
- bookkeeping and calculating payments;
- presenting on-line data.
The technical assignment for the EIS Enterprise has been elaborated.
Functions have been determined for each subsystem. The technical
assignment
contains requirements for the software and hardware. Further development
of
the system will involve:
- adding on new subsystems and expanding functions;
- developing a software package for the simulation of dissemination,
migration and transformation of
pollutants;
- a multi-user version of the system using network architecture;
- connection with sources of pollution using
transducers, which is a pre requisite for a
computerized monitoring system to be established
at the enterprise level.
The comprehensive surveys have shown that:
- the level of pollution depends on a number of factors, such
as
particular production processes, design
solutions, process equipment, the quality and culture of operating
the
installed plants;
- the qualitative and quantitative composition of
emissions of pollutants is characterized by a
significant contribution of organic compounds
(up to 70 percent of the volume of emissions),
followed by sulphur, carbon and nitrogen oxides, ammonia, hydrochloric
acid, phenols, and others.
Data on total emissions and concentrations of organic compounds
have been
obtained by analyzing representative samples from sources of emissions,
and
by calculation.
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) account for a major part of the
organic
compounds. In view of the important role played by VOCs in the
chemical
processes in the atmosphere (production of ozone and peroxides,
formation
of acid rain), we have studied the activity of hydrocarbons -
components
of VOCs - which makes it possible to predict possible photochemical
reactions of the VOCs. Later on, data on the volumes of the emissions,
their qualitative and quantitative composition and VOC activity
could be
used in regional simulation of various photochemical processes.
Determining the activity of hydrocarbons and their role in the
production
of ozone and in other photochemical processes through an experiment
is a
fairly complex task. This kind of research requires sophisticated
equipment, samples of pure individual hydrocarbons, and instruments
to
determine the composition of the reaction mass. We have developed
a
qualitative approach to the evaluation of relative hydrocarbon
activity in
photochemical processes which requires no chemical experiment.
The approach
is based on the quantum chemical simulation method which consists
in
calculating hydrocarbon molecules. Calculations allowing projection
of the
geometry, energy and other properties of known and unknown molecules
are
often referred to as a new important technique of chemical research.
The informative value of calculation techniques is much higher
than that of
experiments, as there is hardly any experimental technique that
allows data
to be obtained on the molecules' geometry, dipole moment, heat
of
formation, ionization potential, etc., all at one go. Of course,
there is a
certain limit to the validity of calculation results, yet the
strong and
the weak points of the common methods are known well enough to
give a
realistic estimate of their accuracy in determining various characteristics
of molecules.
Based on calculations, activity groups have been identified with
respect to
the HO- radical and, consequently, their ozone production potential.
The
activity series includes 25 of the more active hydrocarbons and
is of the
form 1- heptene > 1- butene > 1- octene > propene >
ethene > 1- hexene > 1-
pentene > butadiene- 1,3 > isobutane > styrene > cis-
2- pentene >
pentadiene- 1,3 > methyl cyclopentane > cis- 2- butene >
trans- 2- pentene
> 2- methyl- 2- butene > isopentane > trans- 2- butene
> butane > propane >
ethylbenzene > toluene > m- xylene > p- xylene > o-
xylene. The most active
in the photochemical transformations are terminal alkenes whose
contribution to the change of the ozone balance is, perhaps, the
largest.
The results we have obtained regarding the hydrocarbon activity
in
reactions with the HO- radical have been compared to the experimental
data
disclosed in the Note that has been presented by the U.K. delegation
to the
Executive Body of the Convention on Long- Range Transboundary
Air
Pollution. According to the Note, 10 hydrocarbons - toluene,
ethene, m-
xylene, p- xylene, 1,2,4- trimethylbenzene, n- butane, 2- butene,
o-
xylene, propene and isobutane - account for up to 50 percent
of the ozone
produced. The same study provides a calculation of the photochemical
ozone
production potential (POPP) for 58 compounds (of which 18 are
hydrocarbons)
according to the following formula:
According to calculations, the ten most active hydrocarbons include
4
polyalkylbenzenes (1,2,4- trimethylbenzene, 1,2,3- trimethylbenzene,
m-
xylene); 4 terminal alkenes (pentene- 1, propene, ethene, butene-
1); 2
alkenes with a double bond in the center of the molecule
(butene- 2, pentene- 2). By the POPP value, hydrocarbons may be
divided
into groups: aromatic hydrocarbons (POPP ranging between 49.2
and 120.3),
alkenes (64.0 to 105.3), alkanes (0.7 to 52.9). The POPP values
change
significantly with the geographical position of the source of
emissions and
with the insulation regime. Therefore, even an average POPP value
may only
characterize the activity of hydrocarbons as ozone producers in
a
quantitative way.
Research has been conducted to assess the effects of the identified
factors
on human health in the area of the enterprise's technogenic impact.
The
findings of this research are the subject of a separate paper.
Thus, the main objectives, tasks, and organizational principles
of the
system of impact monitoring were determined in the course of the
studies.
The following main stages could be identified:
- development of the SIM concept and strategy, as well as methodology
of
surveys;
- the survey of the industrial site and the area of its technogenic
impacts;
- the development of dataware to provide for data
processing and the storage and presentation of data in a usable
form for
decision-making and creating databases;
- the development of software to simulate the
proliferation, migration and transformation
of pollutants;
- assessment of technogenic effects on human health.
More research is needed to test all the elements of the concept,
so that a
technical assignment for a standard SIM design could be elaborated.
SUMMARY
The paper describes the conceptual plan of developing a system of impact monitoring (SIM) as a system of observations and assessment of both current and projected technogenic impacts of anthropogenic sources on ecosystems and human health. The main objectives and tasks are determined as follows: observation of anthropogenic sources and levels of pollution of the natural environment in the area of the technogenic impacts; identification of the sources of pollution and the area of impacts; assessment of the level and scale of pollution; assessment of the environmental and toxicological hazards resulting from the pollution; setting up information systems and databases. Certain elements of the proposed concept have been tested at a concrete industrial site (a petrochemical concern) with a view to elaborating a technical assignment to develop a standard SIM design.
Last updated September 30, 1996 by Lorant Czaran